THE COSTS OF CHARGING ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN POLAND

Resume The very important factor that influences the decision of those interested in buying a vehicle is its operating costs. This paper determines the costs of driving 100 km for various electric vehicles, charging service providers and chargers, which was then confronted with the costs of refueling. Based on the analysis carried out, it was determined that, at present, the lowest costs of fueling/charging of a vehicle in Poland are connected with use of an electric vehicle, but only when the charging is performed with use of public AC chargers. Moreover, it was determined that the savings that will result from charging electric vehicles at AC charging stations as compared to filling up internal combustion engine vehicles are small and do not compensate for the purchase price of an electric vehicle.


Introduction
Nowadays, serious problems and threats to civilization are connected with emission of harmful components of fuel combustion to the atmosphere and gradual exhaustion of fossil fuels. Air pollution is largely attributed to transport, especially motorization. Operation of an internal combustion engine powered by diesel or gasoline causes emission into the atmosphere of such combustion components as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur compounds, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, lead compounds, which contribute to destruction of the ecosystem and threaten human health on a global and local level. Moreover, their emissions cause global climate warming [1][2][3][4][5]. Nevertheless, an important problem associated with use of motorized transport is the noise level, which is harmful to human health, as well. In an ad hoc way, these problems may be minimized by improving the design of internal combustion engines to drastically reduce their specific fuel consumption, introducing fuels with very low or no carbon content (e.g. hydrogen) and using combustionelectric hybrid propulsion systems. Ideally, electric vehicles should be widely available, especially when electric energy is obtained from renewable sources [6][7][8]. The development of electromobility creates real prospects for improving the air quality and reducing transport related noise in cities, as well as in Poland [8][9]. On  situation may give rise to consumers' fears of higher prices of the BEV servicing. Not without significance for development of electromobility is the limited number of electric vehicle models that potential buyers have to choose from. In 2019 in Poland, consumers had only eighteen BEV models to choose from [24], which, in addition, can often not be seen in a vehicle showroom and after their purchase you have to reckon with a longer waiting time for pick-up. Moreover, not all the dealers sell such vehicles. For example, Volkswagen electric vehicles can be bought in Poland and then serviced in only four out of eighty-five Volkswagen dealerships [23]. Another very important impediment is the insufficient charging infrastructure for electric vehicles in Poland, which makes the electric vehicle essentially a city vehicle. According to estimates [15], there are currently over 945 publicly accessible electric vehicle charging points in Poland ( Figure 3). Although Poland has a very high ratio of charging stations to the number of vehicles of this type (one charger for every five vehicles), this is an effect of a very low number of electric vehicles registered in the country (Figure 4). the share of such vehicles in the automotive market in 2019 was 0.3% (2607 units) (Figure 1, 2).
According to [16][17][18][19][20] and the surveys carried out among Polish drivers, such a low interest in the purchase of electric vehicles is chiefly caused by their high price and technical limitations, such as the lack of generally accessible infrastructure for the charging of such vehicles, short driving range on a single charge (battery capacity), long charging time and great diversity of connectors.
Currently, even taking into account the proposed subsidies for the purchase of an electric vehicle, higher costs apply to t purchase of this type of vehicle compared to a combustion vehicle. A car whose size is sufficient for a family of 4 will costs from about Euro 444000. In general, a combustion engine car of a similar class can be bought for 50% of the price of an electric vehicle. Table 1 compares the prices of electric vehicles with combustion engine-powered cars available in Poland in 2019.
Moreover, potential EV users are concerned about the potential costs and location of vehicle servicing. At present, there are no independent service points for electric vehicles, which is a result of the lack of access to servicing procedures for this category of vehicles. This  Volkswagen e-Up! 511443 --Up! 177600 ZS*-compression ignition ZI**-spark ignition a vehicle, is the costs of refueling/charging. Until now, charging of electric vehicles on majority of charging stations available in Poland was free of charge. However, an increasing number of charging service providers operating in Poland have recently introduced and others are planning to introduce or increase, the currently binding charges for the of chargers provided by them. Therefore, the costs of driving 100 km for various electric vehicles, charging point operators and chargers has been determined below and then compared to the costs of refueling.
The distribution of charging stations in Poland, as shown in Figure 5, indicates that they are chiefly located in large cities (48%) and along main transport routes. Lack of a sufficiently developed network of charging infrastructure, the current range of electric automotive vehicles and battery charging times make it necessary to plan longer trips in advance and spread them out in stages, which certainly limits the number of people interested in using electric vehicles.
Another, undoubtedly very important factor influencing the decision of those interested in buying According to the information obtained from the suppliers of the charging station, a total of another 17,469 charging points are to be launched by the end of 2020 [26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38]. Figure 6 shows the current and announced number of public charging points for major charging service providers in Poland.

Charging service providers in Poland
According to the Act of 11 January 2018 on electromobility and alternative fuels, at least one charging service provider should operate in a publicly available charging station. According to this Act, the charging service provider [26]: • concludes with the electricity seller a contract for the sale of electricity, referred to in Article 5 (2) (1) of the Act of 10 April 1997. -Energy law; • provides a charging service including charging and provides the opportunity to use the charging station infrastructure for charging purposes; • provides, on its website, information about the price of the charging service and the conditions for its provision; • provides the electric vehicle user with the option Figure 6 Ten largest electric vehicle charging networks in Poland [27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38] energy consumed [39]. On January 31, 2020, Ionity, the operator of the European network of ultra-fast charging stations, published a statement in which it stated that the expected price for each kWh collected at the station would be Euro 15.54 [40], while Innogy Polska would announce a rate for 1 kWh -Euros 4.44 and Ekoen, -7.05 Euros/kWh.
In addition, the PGE Polish Energy Group, Polish Oil Company Orlen , Energa intends to introduce a fee for electricity collected to charge the vehicle, the amount of which is not yet known.

Costs of driving 100 km
Below, Tables 3 and 4 show the costs of driving 100 km for various electric cars and charging service providers currently in force in Poland, while Table 5 presents the costs per 1 kWh determined in accordance with the rates announced.
The costs determined refers to the charging itself and does not include e.g. fees and commissions connected with the electric vehicle charging service or costs connected with the battery pack consumption.
The drive train in electric vehicles consists of an electric motor, a battery pack and controllers (Figure 7). This means fewer parts and therefore fewer components that could fail and lower operating costs, which are also omitted. The only maintenance tasks in their case are replacement of the battery coolant, oil in the transmission and replacement of worn out

Toll collection system in Poland
The price of the charging service is determined for a single charging point and may consist of three different charges: • initial: fixed costs charged at the beginning of the charging session, regardless of duration and energy consumption; • calculated based on energy consumption: costs proportional to the energy (kWh) used for charging; • calculated based on charging time: hourly costs calculated from the beginning of the session to the end of the session. In all the cases, the price of the charging service consists only of a charge based on energy consumption (kWh).
In Poland, the charge for electricity collected to charge a vehicle is binding at GreenWay Polska Sp. Currently, the costs of 1 kWh consumption at highspeed direct current stations at these suppliers' ranges from Euro 5.15 to Euro 11.49.
In turn, charging at slow or semi-fast stations involves an expenditure of Euro 3.99 to Euro7.10 per 1 kWh, which makes it cheaper by 2-127 % compared to using a higher power charger, comparing the offer of one operator ( Table 2).
From 27 January 2020, Grupa Lotos S. A. also charges a fee of PLN 24 for using its charging stations regardless of the length of charging and the amount of Figure 7 The BEV type car drive system [41]   suspension and friction elements of the braking system, which also takes place in a vehicle with a conventional engine.
Analyzing the above costs, it should be noted that the electric vehicle will be more cheaply charged using the AC charging stations. However, the battery will take longer to recharge (up to 80 % compared to DC), as demonstrated in Table 6.   others, the purchase of the considered vehicles contains Table 8. The calculations show that currently the lowest costs, related to driving 100 km in Poland, are related to use of an electric vehicle, but only when charging is done with public AC chargers (the lowest price for 1kWh -Euro 4.88). The highest, when charging is carried out with use of DC Ionity chargers (price for 1kWh -17.13 Euro). Then the costs of charging would significantly exceed the costs of refueling vehicles with a conventional engine and would be higher by over 160 %. Table 10 gives the total costs of refueling/charging vehicles with different propulsion types and the differences between them that will be generated after three years.
The savings that would result from charging an electric vehicle at AC charging stations, as compared to refueling an IC engine vehicle after 3 years, are small and certainly do not make up for the purchase price of an electric vehicle, which is currently at least 40 % higher than that of a conventional engine vehicle (Table 1). When comparing the total costs of purchasing and refueling/charging a vehicle, the total costs of purchasing and charging an electric vehicle would be equal to those of a compression ignition engine vehicle after a minimum of 7 years and of a spark ignition engine vehicle after a minimum of 9 years (Figure 8).
In the case of the DC chargers, the lowest cost is 97.28 Euro, while the highest is 275.99 Euro. Even lower costs of charging an electric vehicle with electricity necessary to cover a distance of 100 km are recorded in the case of charging from an electric socket available e.g. in a garage. Table 7 presents such costs for all the vehicles analyzed.

Comparison of the charging costs
of an electric vehicle to the costs of refueling a car with an internal combustion engine In Table 9 are presented the costs of fueling/charging per 100 km one model of vehicles of the same make, with different propulsion sources and systems, assigned to the same market segment (B). They have the same or comparable total power, the same body type, type of drive (front-wheel drive) and transmission (vehicles with conventional engines -manual, with electric motors -automatic). The fuel/electricity consumption in the mixed cycle as given by the vehicle manufacturer and the annual mileage: 30 000 km were assumed. In the calculations are taken into account the lowest and the highest costs of electricity charging needed to drive per 100 km at public charging stations.
Technical parameters and costs related to, among  The most frequently cited obstacle is insufficient infrastructure for charging vehicles. Potential consumers are also discouraged by the significantly higher purchase costs of an electric vehicle, as compared to a combustion vehicle, even after taking into account the proposed subsidies. In addition, there are concerns about the possible costs and location of vehicle servicing, as well as future costs of battery replacement. Added to this is the inability to determine the value of an electric vehicle in the aftermarket in the future. This paper shows that another significant barrier may also be the costs of charging such vehicles. Although the costs of charging from a socket with energy needed for 100 km is presently maximum Euro 57.72, it is connected with significant difficulties (long charging time, difficulties in connecting to an electric socket).
Currently, an electric vehicle can be charged for 100 km at public charging stations for the price from62.16 Euro to 275.28 Euro. However, these amounts are not encouraging, considering the long charging time, short range of the vehicles ride, lack of a uniform charging standard and above all the costs of purchase of such a vehicle. The analysis shows that these costs will be compensated for after 7 years for a vehicle with a diesel engine and 9 years for a vehicle with a spark ignition engine. However, it should be noted that after 8 years or 160 000 km it is recommended to replace the battery in an electric vehicle, which generates a further costs of 381840 to 444000 Euro.
In 2020, Ionity charging stations were launched in Poland, where the average charging time was reduced to 15-25 minutes. However, the costs of charging at these stations turned out to be higher by up to 50 % compared to refueling the IC vehicles. Therefore, it should be clearly stated that another very significant barrier to the development of electromobility in Poland are the costs of charging such vehicles.
Meanwhile, after about 8 years or driving 160 000 km by the BEV, it is planned to replace the battery used in such a vehicle. Currently, battery replacement in Volkswagen e-Golf costs 382396.12 Euro. Thus, the battery costs converted per 100 km will amount to 239.67 Euro.
Taking into account the costs of electricity consumption (4.88 Europer 100 km -the cheapest option) and the costs of depreciation of the battery -the costs of driving 100 km would then be 244.55 Euro. Assuming that the price of gasoline is /l, it corresponds to use of a combustion vehicle with an average fuel consumption of 11.97 l/100 km.
The advantage of electric vehicles is the simple structure of their drive system.
It is estimated that the driveline consists of around 4,000 components for a vehicle with a conventional engine and only 320 for the BEV.
The engine related devices are much simpler than in a combustion vehicle; for example, an electric motor does not require a cooling system. Its design itself is also much less complicated than that of an internal combustion unit. There are, for example, no intake or exhaust system, valves. Simple structure, relatively small dimensions and low weight allow to eliminate frequent maintenance and repairs connected with the necessary costs (fuel filter, air filter, oils, fluids, spark plugs, timing gears, adjustments, removal of leaks etc.).
However, all these do not compensate for the costs associated with buying an electric vehicle or a subsequent battery replacement.